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5 Fluorouracil
5 Fluorouracil, or 5FU, is a drug usually given by injection and used in chemotherapy to treat cancer in particular breast, bowel, stomach and oesophageal cancers.
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A
Abdominal Cavity
The abdominal cavity is the part of the body between the chest and the pelvis containing the stomach intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys and adrenal glands as well as blood, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and the omentum.
Acid Reflux
If the acid contents of the stomach flow back into the oesophagus, it is referred to as acid reflux. The stomach produces hydrochloric acid which is important in the digestion of food. Usually the acid stomach contents cannot flow back into the oesophagus due to the presence of a valve, but if this fails to function the lining of the oesophagus can be damaged by acid reflux.
Acid Suppression
Acid production in the stomach can be reduced, or suppressed by various drugs usually in the treatment of acid reflux.
Acoustic Neuroma
Acoustic neuromas are benign tumours that develop in the nerve that connects the ear to the brain (the acoustic nerve). Symptoms, when they occur, include problems with hearing and balance. Acoustic neuromas are also called vestibular schwannomas.
ACTH
ACTH is adrenocorticotropic hormone. It is produced in the pituitary gland and stimulates the adrenal gland cortex to produce cortisol, a corticosteroid hormone. Some tumours secrete ACTH, over stimulating the adrenal cortex and resulting in too much cortisol being produced, causing a condition called Cushing’s Syndrome.
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia (ALL)
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia is a form of cancer affecting the blood’s white cells, which affects children and adults. Acute leukaemias develop quickly causing a rapid onset of symptoms. Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia is described fully in the section on leukaemias.
Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML)
Acute myeloid leukaemia is a form of cancer affecting blood’s white cells, called granulocytes, which mainly affects adults. Acute leukaemias develop quickly causing a rapid onset of symptoms.
Acute myeloid leukaemia is described fully in the section on leukaemias.
Adenocarcinoma
Adenocarcinomas are cancers that develop from cells lining the body’s glands. There are main different types of adenocarcinoma which grow and sread differently and are treated differently. Examples of adenocarcinoma include some cancers of the lung, stomach, pancreas, prostate, breast and intestines.
Adenoma
An adenoma is a benign tumour arising from a gland. Adenomas can grow from the gut, adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thyroid gland and many other glands. Over time, adenomas may become malignant, when they are called adenocarcinomas.
Adjuvant Therapy
Adjuvant therapy is extra treatment given to stop a cancer recurring. The exact treatment will depend in the cancer being treated but adjuvant therapy may include chemotherapy, radiotherapy, hormone therapy, monoclonal antibodies or a mixture of these treatments.
Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are triangle-shaped endocrine glands situated on top of both kidneys. They make corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol and adrenaline.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone is produced in the pituitary gland and stimulates the adrenal gland cortex to produce cortisol, a corticosteroid hormone. Some tumours secrete ACTH, over stimulating the adrenal cortex and resulting in too much cortisol being produced, causing a condition called Cushing’s Syndrome.
AIDS
AIDS is 'acquired immunoeficiency disorder' and is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In AIDS, the immune system fails to work effectively so the patient is unable to fight infections normally. It is also associated with a rare form of cancer Kaposi’s sarcoma.
Allogeneic Stem Cell
Allogeneic stem cell transplants are transplants of stem cells taken from one person and transplanted into someone else.
Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency
Alpha-1 antitrypsin is an enzyme produced in the liver. Deficiency, or a lack of this enzyme, causes emphysema of the lungs.
Anaemia
Anaemia is a level of haemoglobin in the blood, which is lower than normal. Haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to all the other tissues of the body. Mild anaemia may cause no symptoms but profound anaemia may be dangerous.
Anaplastic
Anaplastic is a term used to describe tumours whose cells do not look like the cells of the tissue they developed from. Anaplastic tumours are usually faster growing forms of cancer.
Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma
Anaplastic large cell lymphoma is a fast growing lymphoma that mainly affects lymph nodes and is treated with a variety of chemotherapy treatments, sometimes with radiotherapy. Response to treatment is generally good. If the lymphoma returns after initial treatment, a stem cell (bone marrow) transplant is one treatment option.
Antibodies
Antibodies are chemicals (proteins) produced in the body or in laboratories to fight bacteria and viruses. They are an important part of the body’s defence against infections.
Antioxidant Vitamins
Antioxidant vitamins are vitamins C, E and some forms of vitamin A. These vitamins have a number of health benefits. There is evidence that they are protective against developing some forms of cancer.
Astrocytes
Astrocytes are a type of glial cell found in the brain and spinal cord. They are star shaped (hence the name) and form part of the supporting structure within the central nervous system. Their functions are repair and nutrition. Astrocytes can give rise to tumours called astrocytomas.
Astrocytoma
Astrocytomas are tumours that develop from a type of glial cell called an astrocyte in the brain.
Autologous
Autologous means derived or transferred from the same individual's body e.g. autologous blood transfusion, an autologous bone marrow transplant.
Axilla
The axilla is the armpit. It is important because it contains a number of lymph nodes which breast and some other cancers can spread to.
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B
B Cells
B-cells are a type of lymphocyte, which is a type of white cell found in the blood. B-cells produce antibodies against infection. They are called B-cells because they mature in the bone marrow. T-cells, the other form of lymphocyte, mature in the thymus.
Barium Enema
A barium enema is a special x-ray. A barium-based fluid is introduced into the rectum and colon through the anus. As the barium shows up very clearly on the x-ray, tumours in the bowel show up as dark areas which the barium cannot fill.
Barrett's Oesophagus
Barrett’s oesophagus is a pre-malignant or pre-cancerous condition of the oesophagus. 10% of patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux are affected by Barrett's oesophagus, and of these 1% per year develop cancer. Overall, Barrett's oesophagus increases the risk of cancer by about 30 times.
Benzene
Benzene is a known carcinogen, with the chemical formula C6H6. It is a colourless fluid, used as a solvent in a number of industrial processes.
Bevacizumab
Bevacizumab is a monoclonal antibody marketed as Avastin and used in the treatment of advanced bowel cancer. It can also be used in the treatment of breast, renal and non small cell lung cancers.
Bicalutamide
Bicalutamide, marketed as Casodex, Cosudex, Calutide and Kalumid, is a drug used against prostate cancer.
Bile
Bile is a substance produced in the liver, containing bile acids important in the digestion of fats as well as a number of waste products.
Bile Duct
The bile duct is a tube linking the liver to the duodenum (part of the small intestine) and the gall bladder. Blockage of the bile duct causes jaundice.
Bilirubin
Bilirubin is the substance formed when red blood cells are broken down. Bilirubin is part of the bile, which is made in the liver and is stored in the gall bladder. The abnormal build-up of bilirubin causes jaundice.
Biopsy
A biopsy is the removal of a small sample of body tissue for examination, to assist in diagnosis.
Blast Phase
A phase of chronic myeloid leukaemia in which the number of immature, abnormal white blood cells in the bone marrow and blood is extremely high. This phase is also called blast crisis.
Bleomycin
Bleomycin is a drug given as a treatment for some types of cancer.
Blood Brain Barrier
The blood-brain barrier restricts the transfer of chemical substances and microscopic objects (e.g. bacteria) from the bloodstream to the brain, but allows the transfer of other substances essential to metabolic function (e.g. oxygen).
Blood Platelets
Blood platelets are irregularly shaped, cell-like particles found in the blood that are important in blood clotting.
Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is found inside bones. It produces new blood cells.
Brachytherapy
Brachytherapy, or internal radiation therapy, is a type of radiation therapy used to treat cancer and involves placing a radioactive material inside the body.
Buccal Mucosa
The buccal mucosa is the lining of the cheeks and lips.
Burkitt's Leukaemia
Burkitt’s leukaemia is a very rare, fast-growing type of leukemia (blood cancer). Both Burkitt’s leukaemia and Burkitt’s lymphoma have been linked to infection with the Epstein-Barr virus.
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C
Carbon 14 Therapy
Carbon 14 is the radioactive isotope of carbon, used in some forms of radiotherapy.
Carboplatin
Carboplatin is a form of Cisplatin. It is a chemotherapy drug used against some forms of cancer (mainly ovarian carcinoma, lung, head and neck cancers).
Carcinogen
A carcinogen is a substance known to cause cancer. Common examples include tobacco smoke, benzene and asbestos.
Carcinoma in situ
A carcinoma in situ is an area of abnormal cells that look like cancer cells but that has remained at the original site where it started.
Carcinoma of the Pancreas
Carcinoma of the pancreas is fully described on the section on pancreatic cancer.
Cartilage
Cartilage is a strong, flexible tissue commonly found in the joints, on the ends of bones. It prevents friction in joints allowing them to move smoothly, and gives shape to some external organs such as the ears and nose.
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
The cerebrospinal fluid is the fluid that flows in and around the hollow spaces of the brain and the spinal cord, and between two of the meninges.
Cervarix®
Cervarix® is the registered trade name of a vaccine against certain types of the Human Papilloma Virus (HPV). It is designed to prevent infection from types 16 and 18, which account for 70% of cervical cancer cases.
Cervical Canal
The cervical canal is on the inside of the cervix. It is the canal leading up into the uterus.
Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN)
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia is an abnormal growth of cells on the cervix that may develop into cancer if not treated. It is usually detected by a cervical smear.
Cervical Smear
A cervical smear is an examination of a woman’s cervix. A small sample of cervical cells are taken using a tiny brush or spatula, and smeared onto a glass slide to be analysed under a microscope.
Cetuximab
Cetuximab is a monoclonal antibody, marketed as Erbitux, used in the treatment of cancer of the colon and rectum and cancer of the head and neck.
Chemoembolisation
Chemoembolisation is a type of treatment delivering drugs directly to a tumour site.
Chemoradiation
Chemoradiation, also known as chemoradiation therapy, is a combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy.
Chlorambucil
Chlorambucil is a drug that has been used in the treatment of cancer, in particular, in the treatment of chronic lymphatic leukaemia (CLL) and some type of Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma.
Cholangiosarcomas
A cholangiosarcoma is a tumour of the connective tissues of the bile ducts.
Chondrosarcoma
A chondrosarcoma is a form of cancer whose cells look like cartilage cells. It is described in more detail in the sarcoma section of this website.
Chronic Lymphatic Leukaemia (CLL)
Chronic Lymphatic Leukaemia (CLL) is the most common form of leukaemia affecting the lymphocytes. The lymphocytes multiply too quickly resulting in too many being present in the blood. It is described in more detail in the leukaemia section of this website.
Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia (CML)
Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia (CML) is a form of leukaemia affecting white granulocytes. It is described in more detail in the leukaemia section of this website.
Cirrhosis
Cirrhosis of the liver is the formation of scar tissue in the liver, which impairs normal function of the organ. It can be caused by alcohol abuse and chronic viral hepatitis.
Cisplatin
Cisplatin is a drug used to treat many types of cancer, which contains the metal platinum. It kills cancer cells by damaging their DNA and stopping them from dividing.
Clinical Psychologists
Clinical psychologists are health professionals who reduce psychological distress due to anxiety, depression, relationship, and other problems and enhance psychological wellbeing.
Co-Carcinogens
Co-carcinogens are substances that do not cause cancer on their own, but do cause cancer in combination with other substances.
Colon
The colon, or large intestine, is the lower part of the intestine where water is absorbed from faeces. It is made up of the caecum, ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon.
Colonoscope
A colonoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument used to examine the inside of the colon. A colonoscope has a light and a lens for viewing and may have a tool to remove tissue.
Colonoscopy
Colonoscopy is an examination of the inside of the colon using a flexible telescope, inserted through the anus. It is fitted witha light and a lens for viewing.
Colorectal Cancer
Colorectal cancer is a cancer that occurs in the colon or rectum, associated with eating a high-fat, low-fibre diet.
Colostomy
A colostomy is an opening of the colon onto the outside of the body, usually on the front of the abdomen. A colostomy provides a new path for faeces to leave the body and be collected in a bag.
Colposcope
A colposcope is a magnifying instrument used by gynaecologists to examine the tissues of the vagina and cervix, and to detect areas of abnormal cells.
Colposcopy
Colposcopy is a procedure gynaecologists perform using a colposcope to look at the tissues of the cervix and vagina to detect any abnormalities.
Concurrent Therapy
Concurrent therapy is a treatment that is given at the same time as another.
Consolidation Phase
The consolidation phase is the second phase of treatment in some forms of leukaemia.
Convulsions
Convulsions are uncontrolled movements of all or part of the body due to repeated contraction and relaxation of the muscles, and caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain.
Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids are synthetic drugs that closely resemble cortisol, a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands. They are commonly used to treat inflammation of the joints and organs, as well as some forms of cancer.
Cowden Syndrome
Cowden Syndrome is an inherited disorder characterised by multiple, benign growths called hamartomas and an increased risk of breast, thyroid, uterine and gastrointestinal cancers.
Craniopharyngioma
Craniopharyngiomas are rare tumours that develop in the hypothalamus region of the brain. They are usually benign but put pressure on other parts of the brain as they increase in size.
Craniotomy
A craniotomy is an operation where a portion of the skull, (a bone flap), is removed temporarily to allow access to the brain.
Cryotherapy
Cryotherapy is a freezing technique used to destroy abnormal cells. An extremely cold liquid (liquid nitrogen) or instrument is used to freeze the affected area.
CT (Computerised Tomography) Scan
A CT scan, or CAT scan, is a non-invasive test that provides clear cross-sectional images (slices) of the inside of the body using specialized x-ray equipment. This test can be used to identify cancers, cardiovascular disease and musculoskeletal disorders.
Cyclophosphamide
Cyclophosphamide is a drug used to treat cancers of the breast, ovaries and bladder and chronic lymphatic leukaemia.
Cyst
A cyst is a closed sac or capsule that has a distinct membrane, and separate from nearby tissues. It may contain air, fluids or semi-solid material. NB. A collection of pus is called an abscess, not a cyst.
Cystitis
Cystitis is an infection of the bladder and causes a burning sensation during urination and a need to urinate more often. It is commonly caused by infection, but can be a side effect of radiotherapy.
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D
Dacarbazine
Dacarbazine is a drug that interferes with tumour cell growth and impedes the formation of new tumour tissue. It is normally administered by injection, or intravenous infusion (IV).
Dedifferentiated or High-Grade
This is a term to describe tumours with cells that do not closely resemble normal cells of that tissue type.
Digestive Enzymes
Digestive enzymes are enzymes that digest food so the body can absorb it. They are secreted by glands in the mouth, stomach, pancreas and small intestine.
Dioxins
Dioxins are chemicals that are formed during combustion processes. Exposure to high levels of these causes an increased risk of cancer, heart disease and diabetes.
Docetaxel
Docetaxel, commonly known as Taxotere, is a chemotherapy drug used in the treatment of cancer of the breast and prostate and non-small cell lung cancer.
Down's Syndrome
Down’s syndrome is a condition caused by the presence of an extra chromosome. It results in a characteristic appearance and can be associated with delays in physical and mental development.
Doxorubicin
Doxorubicin is a chemotherapy drug used to treat many types of cancer.
Ductal Cancer
Ductal cancer is a cancer that develops in the milk ducts of the breast. It is described in more detail in the breast cancer section of this website.
Ductal Carcinoma in situ
A ductal carcinoma in situ, or DCIS, is a cancer that develops in the milk ducts of the breast but does not spread outside these ducts. It is described in more detail in the breast cancer section of this website.
Duodenum
The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine, where the later stages of digestion occur.
Dyskariosis
Dyskariosis, or dysplasia, is the term used to describe abnormal changes in cells. These changes can be classed as mild, moderate or severe depending on the depth of cells affected.
Dyskariotic Cells
Dyskariotic cells are abnormal cervical cells that look like cancer cells but are not considered malignant as they do not invade nearby healthy tissue.
Dysplastic Cells
Dysplastic cells are abnormal cervical cells that look like cancer cells but are not considered malignant as they do not invade the healthy tissue.
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E
Edrecolomab
Edrecolomab is a monoclonal antibody used in the detection and treatment of various cancers.
Endocervix
The endocervix is the inside of the cervix leading to the inside of the uterus.
Endometrial Cancer
Endometrial cancer is a cancer that develops in the tissue of the uterus. It is described in more detail in the uterine cancer section of this website.
Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is a diagnostic technique for examination of the bile ducts and pancreas.
Endoscopy
An endoscopy involves looking inside the body using an instrument called an endoscope.
Ependymal Cells
Ependymal cells are cells that line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. They are involved in the production of cerebrospinal fluid.
Ependymoma
An ependymoma is a tumour that has developed from ependymal cells in the ventricles of the brain or canal of the spinal cord. It is described in more detail in the brain tumour section of this website.
Epirubicin
Epirubicin is a chemotherapy drug that is given as a treatment for many different types of cancer.
Epithelium
The epithelium is a tissue composed of layers of cells that line both the internal and external surfaces of the body.
Epstein-Barr Virus
The Epstein-Barr virus, (EBV), is a member of the herpes virus family and one of the most common human viruses and auses infectious mononucleosis and is associated with several different forms of cancer.
Erythroplakia
Erythroplakia is a pre-cancerous condition found in the mouth. It is a red lesion patch commonly attributed to smoking.
Etoposide
Etoposide is a chemotherapy drug that is given as a treatment for lung, ovarian and testicular cancer.
Ewing's Sarcoma
Ewing's sarcoma is a cancer that arises in bone or soft tissue and commonly occurs in the pelvis, thigh and trunk of the body.
External Beam Radiotherapy
External beam radiotherapy is a technique used to treat cancer by applying radiation using an external source, such as a linear accelerator.
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F
Familial Polyposis
Familial polyposis is an inherited condition, causing polyps to grow in the colon or larger bowel. Although initially benign the polyps can become cancerous.
Fanconi's Syndrome
Fanconi’s syndrome is an inherited condition causing impairment of kidney function. The kidneys fail to reabsorb nutrients and there is excess urination.
Femur
The femur is the thigh bone.
Fibromellar Hepatoma
Fibrolamellar hepatoma is a rare type of liver cell cancer, typically occurring in younger people. It is not linked to cirrhosis of the liver or other liver disease.
Fludarabine
Fludarabine is a chemotherapy drug that is highly effective in the treatment of chronic lymphatic leukaemia (CLL).
5 Fluorouracil
5 Fluorouracil, or 5FU, is a drug usually given by injection and used in chemotherapy to treat cancer in particular breast, bowel, stomach and oesophageal cancers.
Flutamide
Flutamide is a chemotherapy drug, marketed as Eulexin, which prevents the stimulation of the growth of prostate cancer cells.
Follicular Lymphoma
Follicular lymphoma is a type of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, accounting for about 25% of all cases. Follicular lymphoma can occur any time during adulthood, the average age being around 60 years old.
Foreign Bodies
A foreign body is an object that originated outside the body.
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Functional MRI Imaging
Functional MRI imaging is a special type of MRI scan. It is used to observe functioning in organs by detecting changes in chemical composition, blood flow or both.
G
Gall Bladder
The gall bladder is a small organ located underneath the liver and stores bile until it is required to aid in the digestion of fats.
Gamma Knife
A gamma knife is a device used to treat brain tumours. Using specialized equipment a high dose of high-intensity gamma radiation is directed at the tumour with surgical precision, to destroy the tumour and leave the healthy tissue undamaged.
Gantry
The gantry is a frame supporting equipment, e.g. a linear accelerator.
Gardasil®
Gardasil® is the registered trade mark of a vaccine against certain types of the Human Papilloma Virus (HPV). It is designed to prevent infection from types 6, 11, 16 and 18. HPV types 16 and 18 account for 70% of cervical cancers, and HPV types 6 and 11 account for 90% of genital warts.
Gardner Syndrome
Gardner syndrome is a hereditary disease that results in the formation of polyps in the intestinal tract, if not removed these can develop in to cancer.
Gastrectomy
A gastrectomy is an operation to remove part or all of the stomach.
Gastric Cancer
Gastric cancer is cancer that develops in the stomach.
Gastrointestinal Malignancies
Gastrointestinal malignancies, or cancers, include cancers of the oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, colon, rectum and anus.
Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumour (GIST)
GastroIntestinal Stromal Tumour (GIST) or sarcoma develops in the muscle or connective tissue of the wall of the gut and makes up 1-3% of all gastrointestinal malignancies.
Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux
Gastro-oesophageal reflux, or acid reflux, occurs when the contents of the stomach are regurgitated into the oesophagus and the stomach acid damages the lining leading to irritation, or in some cases Barrett’s oesophagus.
Gastroscopy
A gastroscopy is an examination of the inside of the stomach using a flexible telescope, which is passed through the mouth and oesophagus. A gastroscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue to be checked under a microscope for signs of disease.
Gemcitabine
Gemcitabine is a chemotherapy drug used to treat certain types of breast, pancreatic, ovarian, and lung cancer.
Genito-urinary Tract
The genito-urinary tract is a collective name for the organs of the reproductive and urinary systems.
Germ Cell
A germ cell is a reproductive cell of the body. Germ cells generate eggs in females, and sperm in males.
Gleason Score
The Gleason score is a system of grading prostate cancer tissue based on how it looks under a microscope. Gleason scores range from 2 to 10 and indicate how likely it is that a tumour will spread. A low Gleason score means the cancer tissue is similar to normal prostate tissue and the tumour is less likely to spread; a high Gleason score means the cancer tissue is very different from normal and the tumour is more likely to spread.
Glioblastoma Multiforme
Glioblastoma multiforme is the most aggressive form of primary brain tumour, they are highly malignant and may become very large before any symptoms develop.
Glioma
Gliomas are brain tumours arising from the supporting cells in the brain.
Goserelin
Goserelin is a drug that is used to block hormone production in the ovaries or testicles.
Granulocytes
Granulocytes are a type of white blood cell that contain small granules filled with enzymes, that can digest microorganisms.
Growth Hormone
Growth hormone is a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland which stimulates growth. Excess growth hormone causes a condition called acromegaly.
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H
Haemangioblastoma
A haemangioblastoma is a brain tumour that develops in the walls of blood vessels, usually in the cerebellum. They are commonly slow-growing tumours that do not spread to other regions of the brain.
Haemochromatosis
Haemochromatosis is a disease caused by excess iron in the body. It may lead to fatigue, joint pain or arthritis, impotence in men and loss of menstruation in women.
Hard Palate
The hard palate is the roof of the mouth and separates the mouth and nose.
Helicobacter Pylori
Helicobacter pylori is a bacterium found in the stomach of patients with gastric ulcers and gastric cancer. It is a gram negative bacillus which can be treated with antibiotics although there is considerable controversy over the benefits of treatment.
Hepatitis
Hepatitis is an infection of the liver commonly caused by a virus. Symptoms include an enlarged liver, fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and jaundice.
Hepatoblastoma
A hepatoblastoma is a type of liver tumour that occurs in infants and young children. It can be treated with surgery, adjuvant therapy and if necessary, a liver transplant.
Hepatoma
A hepatoma is a tumour developing from the cells of the liver.
Herbicides
Herbicides are chemicals used to kill plants (weed killers).
Hereditary Non-Polyposis Colon Cancer
Hereditary Non-Polyposis Colon Cancer, or Lynch syndrome, carries a higher risk of colorectal cancer and cancers of the endometrium, ovary, stomach, small intestine, hepatobiliary tract, upper urinary tract, brain, and skin.
HIV
HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus, is a virus that can lead to AIDS. AIDS causes the immune system to fail and the body becomes susceptible to life threatening infection.
Hodgkin's Lymphoma
Hodgkin’s Lymphoma is a form cancer of the lymph nodes. It is described in more detail in the lymphoma section of this website.
Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)
Hormone replacement therapy is the replacement of oestrogen and progesterone which are no longer being produced due to the menopause. Hormone therapy is also used when other hormones (e.g. thyroid hormone) are replaced by giving the hormone as a tablet or injection.
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
The human papilloma virus is a virus that infects the skin and may cause warts, cancer or no symptoms whatsoever. They are all spread by contact.
Hürthle Cells
Hürthle cells are cells that found in an uncommon type of thyroid tumour.
Hysterectomy
A hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus and cervix, and in some cases one or both of the ovaries and fallopian tubes.
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I
Ifosfamide
Ifosfamide is a chemotherapy drug used to treat a number of cancers. It is given intravenously (IV).
Iliac Crest
The iliac crest is the long-curved ridge of the ilium, the uppermost part of the pelvis.
Imatinib
Imatinib is a man-made drug currently used for the treatment of patients with chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), and a rare type of cancer known as gastrointestinal stromal tumour (GIST). It is a type of monoclonal antibody.
Immunosuppressant Drugs
Immunosuppressant drugs are used to decrease the chance of a transplanted organ being rejected. They work by blocking the immune system so it is less likely to react against the new organ.
Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy is treatment using the immune system to destroy cancer cells.
Induction Phase
This is the first phase of treatment for some forms of leukaemia and other cancers. During this phase aggressive treatment is used to destroy the vast majority of cancer cells.
Insulin
Insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas and prevents blood sugar levels from becoming dangerously high.
Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy (IMRT)
IMRT is a type of 3-D radiation therapy that uses computer-generated images to show the size and shape of the tumour. Thin beams of radiation of different intensities are aimed at the tumour from many angles. This type of radiation therapy reduces the damage to healthy tissue near the tumour.
Intestine
The intestine is the portion of the digestive tract between the stomach and the anus.
Intra-Operative Treatment
Treatment such as radiotherapy given during the course of an operation.
Intrathecal Chemotherapy
Intrathecal chemotherapy is a treatment using anti-cancer drugs are injected into the cerebrospinal fluid – the fluid filling the space between the thin layers of tissue (meninges) that cover the brain and spinal cord.
Isotope Bone Scan
An isotope bone scan uses an injection of radioactive material is inserted into the vein, and images are taken using a gamma camera.
I.V.
IV stands for intra venous, or into a vein.
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J
Jaundice
Jaundice is the yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes, which can occur in many diseases. It is caused by high levels of bilirubin in the blood.
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K
Kaposi's Sarcoma
Kaposi’s sarcoma develops in the tissues below the skin surface, or in the mouth, nose, or anus. Tumours appear as raised lumps which are purple, brown, or red, and may be painful. Kaposi’s sarcoma is disfiguring, but not usually life threatening or disabling. It is associated with AIDS.
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L
Laparoscope
A laparoscope is an instrument that is used to observe structures inside the abdomen or pelvis, inserted through small surgical incisions.
Larynx
The larynx is the voice box, and contains the vocal cords which vibrate to form sounds.
Leiomyosarcoma
Leiomyosarcomas are rare forms of cancer with cells that look like the sort of muscle cells found in the gut. More information on leiomyosarcomas can be found in the sarcoma section of this website.
Leukoplakia
Leukoplakia is a white patch that develops on the tongue or the inside of the cheek due to chronic irritation It may disappear or in some cases become cancerous.
Leuprorelin
Leuprorelin is a drug that decreases pituitary secretions.
Linear Accelerator
The linear accelerator (Linac) is source of powerful x-rays, used in radiotherapy. Electrons produced in the machine are accelerated in a straight line, hitting a metal target within the machine. This produces high energy x-rays, which are then focussed into a beam that can be used for treatment.
Liposarcomas
Liposarcomas are malignant tumours with cells that resemble fat cells.
Liquid-based Cytology
Liquid-based cytology is a technique for taking cells to examine for signs of cancer under a microscope.
Lobular Cancer
Lobular cancer develops in the lobules of the breast. More information on lobular cancer can be found in the breast cancer section of this website.
Lobules
Lobules are small structures in the breast where milk is produced.
Loop Electrical Excision Procedure (LEEP)
Loop Electrical Excision Procedure is a treatment where an electrical wire is used to remove abnormal tissue from the cervix.
Lumbar Puncture
A lumbar puncture is a procedure in which a thin needle is put into the lower part of the spine to collect cerebrospinal fluid or to give drugs.
Lumpectomy
Lumpectomy is a surgical procedure whereby a malignant tumour and surrounding tissue are removed usually from the breast.
Lycopene
Lycopene is a red pigment found in tomatoes and some fruits. It is an antioxidant and may help prevent some types of cancer.
Lymph Nodes
Lymph nodes are small collection of lymphocytes which filter the lymphatic fluid and are principle sites where immune reactions are initiated, as well as structures commonly infiltrated by cancers from nearby structures.
Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system is a network of small vessels that carry a fluid called lymph. It includes the lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen, thymus, bone marrow and the lymphoid tissue associated with the digestive system.
Lymphoblastic Lymphoma
Lymphoblastic Lymphoma is a form of T-cell lymphoma. More information on lymphoblastic lymphoma can be found in the lymphoma section of this website.
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are white blood cells which play an important and integral role in the body's defences.
Lymphoedema
Lymphoedema is a condition in which excess fluid collects in tissue and causes swelling. It may occur in the arm or leg after lymph vessels or lymph nodes in the armpit or groin are removed or treated with radiation.
Lynch Syndrome
Hereditary Non-Polyposis Colon Cancer, or Lynch syndrome, carries a higher risk of colorectal cancer and cancers of the endometrium, ovary, stomach, small intestine, hepatobiliary tract, upper urinary tract, brain, and skin.
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Maintenance Phase
The maintenance phase of treatment for leukaemia and other diseases follows induction and consolidation phases of treatment and is given often for one or two years to prevent the disease from returning.
Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma
Malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH) is a form of soft tissue sarcoma occurring mainly in adults.
Mediastinoscopy
Mediastinoscopy is a procedure in which a tube is used to examine the organs in the area behiind the breast bone. A mediastinoscope is an instrument with a light and a lens for viewing.
Medical Oncologist
A medical oncologist is a specialist physician that is concerned with all aspects of treating a cancer patient, including chemotherapy, treatment planning and advice.
Medical Physicist
Medical physicists are scientists who supervise the dose of radiation to treat a cancer tumour.
Medulloblastoma
A medulloblastoma is a malignant tumour of the cerebellum found in children.
Melanomas
Melanomas are malignant tumours of melanocytes, which are most commonly found in the skin but can occur in the bowel and the eye.
Melatonin
Melatonin is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland that regulates other hormones and helps maintain the circadian rhythm or body clock.
Meninges
The meninges are three layers of membranes that envelop and protect the central nervous system.
Meningiomas
Meningiomas are benign tumours that develop in the meninges.
Mesenteric Artery
The mesenteric artery is an abdominal branch of the aorta that supplies blood to the intestine.
Mesorectum
The mesorectum is a fold of the peritoneum that connects the rectum to the sacrum. Lymph nodes in the mesorectum are usually removed during surgery for rectal cancer.
Mesothelioma
A mesothelioma is a tumour affecting the lining of the pleura or lining of the chest cavity. Exposure to asbestos particles in the air increases the risk of developing malignant mesothelioma.
Metastases
Metastases are the spread of tumours from their original sites to other areas on the body.
Metastatic Tumours
Metastatic tumours are tumours that develop in other areas of the body due to spread usually through the blood and lymphatic system.
Methotrexate
Methotrexate is a drug given as a treatment for many types of cancer.
Milk Ducts
The milk ducts are a network of tubes in the breast that allow milk to be transported from the lobes where it is produced to the nipple.
Mitomycin
Mitomycin is a drug given as a treatment for many types of cancer.
Mitozantrone (Mitoxantrone)
Mitozantrone is a drug given as a treatment for many types of cancer.
Mixed Glioma
A mixed glioma is a tumour that contains more than one type of brain cell and displays characteristics of each type of glioma. More information on mixed gliomas can be found in the brain tumour section of this website.
Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies produced from clones of a single parent cell and are designed to bind to a single substance. It is possible to create monoclonal antibodies that specifically bind to receptors on cancer cells interfering with their ability to grow and divide.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Scan
An MRI scan is non-invasive test like an x-ray which uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create images (pictures) of tissues, organs and bones inside the body.
Mucosa
The mucosa is a moist tissue that lines many internal surfaces of the body. Glands in the mucosa secrete mucus.
Multidisciplinary Team
A multidisciplinary team is a team of health professionals responsible for the care of patients, usually including radiation, medical and surgical oncologists, pathologists, radiologists, radiographers, physicists, nurses, technicians and others.
Multi-Leaf Collimator
A multi-leaf collimator (MLC) is a device made up of individual metal sheets that can be moved to shape radiotherapy beams in treatment.
Mycosis Fungoides
Mycosis fungoides is a very rare type of skin cancer.
Myelosuppression
Myelosuppression is a condition in which bone marrow activity is decreased, resulting in fewer red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets being produced. Myelosuppression is a side effect of some cancer treatments.
Myxoid Liposarcoma
Myxoid Liposarcoma is a particular form of liposarcoma.
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Neurofibromatosis
Neurofibromatosis is a hereditary condition that causes tumours, particularly acoustic neuromas, to grow on nerve tissue.
Nitrosamines
Nitrosamines are chemicals found in many foods, especially beer, fish, meat and cheese products preserved with nitrite pickling salt. They are associated with an increased risk of some cancers.
Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas are a group of lymphomas without Reed-Sternberg cells. There are many types of lymphoma, described in more detail in the lymphoma section of this website.
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Occult Blood Test
An occult blood test is a check for blood in the faeces.
Occupational Therapist
Occupational therapists help people to regain or maintain health and wellbeing and identify ways to make daily tasks easier for patients. The range of help provided is as wide as the needs of the people they help.
Oesophagoscopy
A test to look inside the oesopahgus using a flexible telescope inserted through the mouth.
Oesophagus
The oesophagus or gullet is a muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach.
Oestrogen-Progesterone Preparations
These are a form of hormone replacement therapy, used to replace natural production of these hormones after the menopause.
Oligodendroglioma
Oligodendrogliomas are tumours found in adults and develop from oligodendrocytes, which make myelin (the substance that covers the long nerve axons). Oligodendrogliomas vary in how fast they grow and whether or not they spread to other parts on the nervous system.
Omentum
The omentum is found in the abdomen and made up of a thin sheet called the peritoneum that covers most of the organs in the abdomen. Blood vessels and nerves run through the omentum to the intestines.
Oncogene
An oncogene is a protein encoding gene used to produce monoclonal antibodies.
Oral Cavity
The oral cavity is another term for the mouth.
Osteosarcoma
Osteosarcomas are the most common type of bone cancer. More details on osteosarcomas can be found in the sarcoma section of this website.
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Paclitaxel
A chemotherapy drug that works by stopping cells dividing. It is used to treat breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma. It is also used together with another drug to treat non-small cell lung cancer.
Paget's Disease
Paget’s disease is a disease of the bones, in which they become softer and weaker, and increases the risk of osteosarcoma.
Paget's Disease of the Breast
Paget's disease of the breast, (also Paget's disease of the nipple), is a condition resembling eczema, but is in fact an uncommon form of cancer.
Pancoast Tumour
A pancoast tumour is a type of lung cancer, that is situated at the top end of either the right or left lung.
Pancreatitis
Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas caused by digestive enzymes becoming active inside the pancreas and damaging the tissue.
Pathologist
A pathologist is a doctor specialising in diagnosing diseases by examining cells, tissue, blood, and body fluids using sophisticated laboratory techniques.
Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma
Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma is a group of aggressive non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas that originate in T-cell lymphocytes. It is also called mature T-cell lymphoma. It can occur at any age from young adulthood to old age. It is slightly more common in men than in women.
Peritoneum
The peritoneum is thin membrane that lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities, and covers the intestines and most of the abdominal organs. It is composed of layer of mesothelium supported by a thin layer of connective tissue.
Pernicious Anaemia
Pernicious Anaemia is a form of anaemia caused by failure to absorb vitamin B12.
Pharyngeal Cancer
Pharyngeal cancer is cancer of the pharynx, also known as throat cancer.
Pharynx
The pharynx is the part of the throat that begins behind the nose and ends at the larynx and beginning of the oesophagus.
Philadelphia Chromosome
The Philadelphia Chromosome or Philadelphia translocation is a specific chromosomal abnormality that is associated with chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML).
Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is located in the brain and secretes melatonin.
Pineal Gland Tumours
Pineal gland tumours are rare, arising in the pineal gland, which makes melatonin.
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is located in the brain and secretes hormones that regulate homeostasis in the body.
Plasma
Plasma is the liquid component of blood in which all cells and nutrients are suspended.
Polyphenol
Polyphenol is a chemical found in many plants and gives some flowers, fruits, and vegetables their colour. Polyphenols have antioxidant activity.
Polyps
Polyps are abnormal growths of tissue projecting from a mucous membrane.
Portal Vein
The portal vein is a large vein through which oxygen-depleted blood flows to the liver from the stomach, intestines, pancreas, gall bladder and the spleen.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)
Positron emission tomography, or a PET scan, uses small amounts of radioactive material to detect cancer and other diseases in the body. Different radioactive materials are given as an injection or a drink. Once in the body, the material concentrates in certain tissues giving off focal radiation which can be detected by the scanner to produce visual images. Experts can then use these images to help make a diagnosis.
Prednisolone
Prednisolone is a manmade corticosteroid, a drug that is used to treat many different diseases including some forms of arthritis, autoimmune diseases, blood cell cancers (leukaemias) and lymph system cancers (lymphomas).
Prednisone
Prednisone is a type of corticosteroid that is used to treat cancer. It is particularly effective as an immunosuppressant. It can be delivered orally, or by intramuscular injection.
Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumour (PNET)
Medulloblastoma is the commonest form of primitive neuroectodermal tumour. The tumours tend to grow in the cerebellum (responsible for balance and coordination) and are the most common brain tumour in children, but can also affect young adults. Medulloblastomas can grow very quickly and may spread to other parts of the brain and spinal cord through the cerebrospinal fluid.
Prolactinomas
Prolactinomas are benign tumours of the pituitary gland.
Prostate Gland
The prostate gland is found only in men. It is made up of 30 to 50 individual glands that produce a milky fluid, discharged when semen is ejaculated. The prostate is about the size of a small egg and lies under the bladder in the pelvis. The urethra – the tube that empties urine from the bladder - passes through the prostate gland.
Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA)
Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) is a protein produced by the cells of the prostate gland. PSA is present in small quantities in the blood plasma of normal men, and is often elevated in the presence of prostate cancer and in other prostate disorders. A blood test to measure PSA is the most effective test currently available for the early detection of prostate cancer.
Proton Radiotherapy
Proton therapy is a form of radiotherapy, using energetic protons, accelerated by a particle accelerator, onto the target tumour. These particles damage the DNA of cells, ultimately causing their death.
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Radiation Oncologist
A radiation oncologist is a specialist doctor treating cancer using radiotherapy treatment. Cancer treatment often involves more than one form of treatment and in most centres cancer is treated by a multidisciplinary team. They are also called radiologists in some countries.
Radiologist
A radiologist is a doctor trained in the use of x-rays, ultrasound, CT, and MRI scans as well as other imaging techniques to diagnose, treat and monitor various diseases including cancer.
Radiotherapy Nurse
Radiotherapy Nurses are health professionals who work as an integral part of the multidisciplinary team, whose responsibilities may include implementing prescribed radiotherapy treatment, documenting all treatments given and maintaining work records, identifying patient teaching needs, monitoring and performing quality control checks on equipment and all related duties.
Radiotherapy Technician
Radiotherapy Technicians are health professionals who work as an integral part of the multidisciplinary team, whose responsibilities may include implementing prescribed radiotherapy treatment, documenting all treatments given and maintaining work records, identifying patient teaching needs, monitoring and performing quality control checks on equipment and all related duties.
Radiotherapy Radiographer
Radiotherapy Radiographers are health professionals who work as an integral part of the multidisciplinary team, whose responsibilities may include implementing prescribed radiotherapy treatment, documenting all treatments given and maintaining work records, identifying patient teaching needs, monitoring and performing quality control checks on equipment and all related duties.
Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen around the body.
Reed Sternberg Cells
Reed-Sternberg cells are large lymphocytes with abnormal nuclei typically found in Hodgkin's lymphoma, but can also be found in other conditions.
Remission
A remission is a decrease in, or disappearance of, signs and symptoms of cancer, although the cancer may not have been totally eliminated from the body. In partial remission, some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared. In complete remission, all signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared.
Retinoblastoma
A retinoblastoma is a tumour of the retina, at the back of the eye. Retinoblastomas contain very primitive cells. These tumours usually affect children under five and can affect one or both eyes. 40% of retinoblastomas are hereditary.
Rhabdomyosarcomas
Rhabdomyosarcomas are tumours that arise in the skeletal muscles.
Rituximab
Rituximab is a monoclonal antibody, used in the treatment of lymphomas.
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Sacrum
The sacrum is a large triangular-shaped bone at the base of the spine, located just above the coccyx or tail bone.
Salpingo-Oophorectomy
A salpingo-oophorectomy is the surgical removal of the fallopian tubes and ovaries.
Sarcomas
Sarcomas are tumours arising in the soft tissue or connective tissue of the body. For more details see the sarcoma section of the website.
Segmentectomy
A segmentectomy is a surgical procedure to remove part of an organ or gland. It may also be used to remove a tumour and normal tissue around it. In lung cancer surgery, a segmentectomy refers to the removing a section of one lobe of a lung.
Selenium
Selenium is a non-metallic element that is required in trace amounts in the diet.
Sigmoidoscope
A sigmoidoscope is a tube-like instrument used to examine the inside of the lowest part of the colon – the sigmoid colon. A sigmoidoscope has a light and a lens for viewing and may have a tool to remove tissue.
Sigmoidoscopy
Sigmoidoscopy is the use of a telescope to look inside the rectum and anal canal.
Sinuses
The paranasal sinuses are air filled cavities in the face that moisten the air we breathe and add resonance to our voices. They are named according to the bones they lie in: maxillary sinuses, frontal sinuses, the ethmoid sinuses, and the sphenoid sinuses.
Sinusitis
Sinusitis is inflammation of the sinuses usually due to infection.
Skin Grafts
A skin graft is skin transplant often from a different area of the patient but sometimes using skin from another person or sometimes another animal.
Skin Lymphomas
Skin lymphomas are rare forms of lymphoma – the most common being mycosis fungoides.
Speech and Language Therapist
Speech and language therapists assess and treat speech, language and communication problems in people of all ages with all sorts of communication problems including those caused by cancer or its treatment.
Sputum
Sputum is the name given to mucus and other matter brought up from the lungs by coughing.
Squamous Cell Carcinomas
Squamous cell carcinomas are cancers developing from skin cells.
Staging
The stage of a cancer is a way of saying how far the cancer has grown and spread. Staging a cancer help to predict how a cancer might respond to treatment. As a general rule, the earlier the stage and the lower the grade of a cancer, the better the outlook.
Stem Cell
A stem cell is a cell from which all other types of cells develop.
Stem Cell Transplant
Stem cell transplants are used to replace blood-forming cells destroyed by cancer treatment. The stem cells are given after treatment to allow the patient to continue to produce healthy blood cells.
Stereotactic Radiotherapy
Stereotactic radiotherapy is a form of external radiotherapy for treating brain tumours. Radiotherapy is given from hundreds of different angles so that high dose treatment can be delivered to the tumour whilst causing minimal harm to surrounding healthy. Computerised scans locate the precise area for treatment. Generally several treatment sessions are required.
Steroids
Steroids are a family of chemical that include cortisol, a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands. Manmade steroids are commonly used to treat inflammation of the joints and organs, as well as some forms of cancer.
Stoma
A stoma is a surgically-created opening from an area inside the body, to the outside.
Stromal Tumours
See Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumour (GIST) above.
Sunitinib
Sunitinib is a monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) and imatinib-resistant gastrointestinal stromal tumour (GIST).
Surgical Oncologist
Surgical oncologists are surgeons who specialise in the treatment of particular forms of cancer.
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Tamoxifen
Tamoxifen is a hormonal therapy used to treat breast cancer.
T Cells
T-cells are a type of lymphocyte, a type of white cell found in the blood. T-cells mature in the thymus.
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH or thyrotropin) is a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the thyroid gland.
Tibia
The tibia is the larger of the two bones of the lower leg.
TNM System
The TNM system is a way of staging cancers. The stage of a cancer is a way of saying how far the cancer has grown and spread. As a general rule, the earlier the stage and the lower the grade of a cancer, the better the outlook.
Tomotherapy
Tomotherapy is a form of CT-Guided IMRT (Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy). A thin beam is rotated around the body, entering from many directions, while the patient’s couch simultaneously moves into the machine. This effectively results in thousands of small treatment beams of different intensities entering the body, converging on the tumour.
Trachea
The trachea, or windpipe, connects the lungs to the pharynx.
Trachelectomy
A trachelectomy is surgical procedure to remove the cervix (the part of the uterus forming a canal between the uterus and the vagina).The upper part of the vagina and certain pelvic lymph nodes may also be removed. It is also called a cervicectomy.
Trastuzumab
Trastuzumab (Herceptin) is a monoclonal antibody that acts on the HER2/neu (erbB2) receptor. Trastuzumab's principal is used as an anticancer therapy in breast cancer.
Tyrosine Kinase
A tyrosine kinase is an enzyme that can transfer a phosphate group from one form compound found in human cells to another. This fuction is important in the treatment of same cancers.
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Ultrasound Scan
An ultrasound scan is a procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echo patterns are shown on the screen of an ultrasound machine, forming a picture of body tissues called a sonogram.
Undifferentiated Carcinoma
This is a term to describe tumours with cells that do not closely resemble normal cells of that tissue type.
Urostomy
A urostomy is an operation to create an opening from inside the body to the outside, to allow urine to be excreted from the body.
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Verrucous Carcinoma
Verrucous Carcinomas are cancer-shaped like warts.
Vestibular Schwannoma
Vestibular schwannomas or acoustic neuromas are benign tumours that develop in the nerve that connects the ear to the brain (acoustic nerve). Symptoms, when they occur, include problems with hearing and balance.
Vinblastine
Vinblastine is a drug given as a treatment for some types of cancer including leukaemia, lymphoma, breast and lung cancer.
Vincristine
Vincristine is a drug given as a treatment for some types of cancer including leukaemia, lymphoma, breast and lung cancer.
Vinorelbine
Vinorelbine is a chemotherapy drug that is used to treat some forms of cancer.
Vinyl Chloride
Vinyl chloride is a known carcinogen causing an increased risk of liver, brain, lung cancer, as well as some cancers of the blood.
Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 is a vitamin that is important for the healthy function of the brain and nervous system as well as formation of the blood.
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Well-Differentiated Liposarcoma
It is a very low-grade malignant tumour of adipose tissue, with almost no potential to metastasise. It is also known as Atypical Lipoma.
Whipple Procedure
The ‘Whipple Procedure’ is an operation used to treat pancreatic cancer. The head of the pancreas, the duodenum, a portion of the stomach, and other nearby tissues are removed. It is also called a pancreatoduodenectomy.
White Blood Cells
White blood cells are found in the blood and lymph vessels and defend the body against infectious diseases.
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